What Makes a Ruler a Dictator Definition and List of Dictators

A dictator is a political leader who rules over a country with absolute and unlimited power. Countries ruled by dictators are called dictatorships. First applied to magistrates of the ancient Roman Republic who were granted extraordinary powers temporarily to deal with emergencies, modern dictators from Adolf Hitler to Kim Jong-un, are considered some of the most ruthless and dangerous rulers in history.   Key Takeaways: Dictator Definition A dictator is a government leader who rules with unquestioned and unlimited power.  Today, the term â€Å"dictator† is associated with cruel and oppressive rulers who violate human rights and maintain their power by jailing and executing their opponents.  Dictators typically come to power through the use of military force or political deceit and systematically limit or deny basic civil liberties. Dictator Definition: What Makes a ‘Ruler’ a ‘Dictator?’   Similar to â€Å"tyrant† and â€Å"autocrat,† the term â€Å"dictator† has come to refer to rulers who exercise oppressive, cruel, even abusive power over the people. In this sense, dictators should not be confused with constitutional monarchs like kings and queens who come to power through a hereditary line of succession.   Holding complete power over the armed forces, dictators eliminate all opposition to their rule. Dictators typically use military force or political deceit to gain power, which they maintain through terror, coercion, and the elimination of basic civil liberties. Often charismatic by nature, dictators tend to employ techniques such as gaslighting and bombastic mass propaganda to stir cult-like feelings of support and nationalism among the people.   While dictators may hold strong political views and be supported by organized political movements, like communism, they may also be apolitical, motivated only by personal ambition or greed.   Dictators Throughout History   As it was first used in the ancient city-state of Rome, the term â€Å"dictator† was not derogatory as it is now. The early Roman dictators were revered judges or â€Å"magistrates† who were given absolute power for a limited time to deal with social or political emergencies. Modern dictators are compared more to the many tyrants who ruled Ancient Greece and Sparta during the 12th–9th centuries BCE.   As the prevalence of monarchies declined during the 19th and 20th centuries, dictatorships and constitutional democracies became the predominant forms of government worldwide. Similarly, the role and methods of dictators changed over time. During the 19th century, various dictators came to power in Latin American countries as they became independent of Spain. These dictators, like Antonio Là ³pez de Santa Anna in Mexico and Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina, typically raised private armies to take power from weak new national governments.   Characterized by Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany and Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union, the totalitarian and fascist dictators who rose to power during the first half of the 20th century were significantly different from the authoritarian rulers of postcolonial Latin America. These modern dictators tended to be charismatic individuals who rallied the people to support the ideology of a single political party like the Nazi or communist parties. Using fear and propaganda to stifle public dissent, they harnessed modern technology to direct their country’s economy to build ever-more-powerful military forces. After World War II, the weakened governments of several countries in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa fell to Soviet-style communist dictators. Some of these dictators posed as hastily â€Å"elected† presidents or prime ministers who established autocratic single-party rule by quashing all opposition. Others simply used brute force to established military dictatorships. Marked by the collapse of the Soviet Union itself in 1991, most of these communist dictatorships had fallen by the end of the 20th century. Throughout history, even some fully constitutional governments have temporarily granted their executives extraordinary dictator-like powers during times of crisis. The dictatorships of Adolph Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy began under proclamations of emergency rule. During World War II, both the United States and Great Britain granted their executives extensive extra-constitutional emergency powers that were terminated with the declaration of peace.   List of Dictators   While thousands of dictators have come and gone, these notable dictators are best-known for their cruelty, unflinching authority, and strict suppression of opposition.   Adolf Hitler Creator and leader of the Nazi Party, Adolf Hitler was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and Fà ¼hrer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As the imperialistic dictator of Nazi Germany, Hitler was primarily responsible for World War II in Europe and ordered the Holocaust, which resulted in the mass murder of some six million European Jews between 1941 and 1945. Benito Mussolini World War II ally of Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini ruled Italy as prime minister from 1922 until 1943. In 1925, Mussolini vacated the Italian constitution, eliminated all forms of democracy, and declared himself â€Å"Il Duce,† the legal fascist dictator of Italy. A law passed in 1925 changed Mussolini’s formal title from â€Å"President of the Council of Ministers† to â€Å"Head of the Government,† and removed virtually all limitations on his power, making him the de-facto dictator of Italy. Joseph Stalin   Joseph Stalin served as secretary-general of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and premier of the Soviet state from 1922 to 1953. During his quarter century of dictatorial rule, Stalin turned the Soviet Union into one of the world’s superpowers by seizing and exercising perhaps the greatest political power of any other political leader in history. Augusto Pinochet On September 11, 1973, Chilean general Augusto Pinochet, with the backing of the United States, led a military coup d’à ©tat that replaced the socialist government of President Salvador Allende. Pinochet went on to head Chile’s military government until 1990. During his dictatorial reign, over 3,000 of Pinochet’s opponents were executed and thousands more tortured. Francisco Franco General Francisco Franco ruled Spain from 1939 until his death in 1975. After winning the Spanish Civil War (1936 to 1939), Franco established a fascist military dictatorship, proclaimed himself Head of State, and outlawed all other political parties. Using forced labor and tens of thousands of executions, Franco ruthlessly repressed his political opponents.   Fulgencio Batista Fulgencio Batista ruled Cuba twice—from 1933 to 1944 as an effective elected president, and from 1952 to 1959 as a brutal dictator. After taking control of the Congress, the press, and the university system, Batista jailed and executed thousands of his opponents, and embezzled a fortune for himself and his allies. Though Cuba held â€Å"free† presidential elections in 1954 and 1958, Batista was the only candidate. He was ousted in December 1958 in the Cuban Revolution by rebel forces under Fidel Castro. Idi Amin Idi â€Å"Big Daddy† Amin was the third president of Uganda, ruling from 1971 to 1979. His dictatorial reign was marked by the persecution and genocide of certain ethnic groups and political opponents. International human rights groups have estimated that as many as 500,000 people were killed by his regime, earning Idi Amin the nickname â€Å"The Butcher of Uganda.†Ã‚   Saddam Hussein Known as â€Å"The Butcher of Baghdad,† Saddam Hussein was the president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. Condemned for his extreme brutality in suppressing opposition, Hussein’s security forces killed an estimated 250,000 Iraqis in various purges and genocides. After being ousted by the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in April 2003, Hussein was tried and found guilty of crimes against humanity by an international court. He was executed by hanging on December 30, 2006. Kim Jong-un Kim Jong-un became the unelected supreme leader of North Korea in 2011, succeeding his equally dictatorial father Kim Jong-il. While Kim Jong-un has implemented minor economic and social reforms, reports of human rights violations and brutal treatment of his opponents have marked his reign. In December 2013, Kim had his uncle and suspected coup d’à ©tat threat Jang Song-Thaek publicly executed, stating that he had â€Å"removed the scum† from the Korean Workers’ Party. Kim has also expanded North Korea’s nuclear weapons program despite international objections. Since coming to power, he has broken all diplomatic ties with South Korea and threatened nuclear war against his neighbors and the United States.   Sources and Further Reference â€Å"Dictatorship.† Encyclopaedia Britannica.  Coppa, Frank J. (2006). â€Å"Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators: From Napoleon to the Present.† Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-8204-5010-0.Kayla Webley. â€Å"Top 15 Toppled Dictators.† Time Magazine. (October 20, 2011).  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Former Chilean army chief charged over 1973 killing of activists.† The Guardian. July 8, 2016.Nebehay, Stephanie. â€Å"U.N.’s Pillay says may be crimes against humanity in North Korea.† Reuters. (January 2013).

Literal Vs. Literal Approach Essay - 2088 Words

Literal or Nonliteral Approach to Genesis 1-2 One of the fundamental key aspects to Christianity is believing in one true God, and that God is the source for everything. He created the whole universe, and everything in it. There is one problem to this. How does one interpret the reading of creation stories in Genesis? A literal approach is described as taking the reading straightforward through young-earth view, while a non-literal approach is defined through old-earth view and through theistic evolution. The literal approach has more problems, including taking the easy way out, creating a difficult reading, using less scientific data, and taking everything straightforwardly. The non-literal view has more strengths, some examples being matching with various scientific and biblical evidence, taking the genre into account, and even thinking of explanations to explain some of its problems. Literal Reading Children are taught the story of creation. Most grow up believing that this story happens word for word. While reading the Book of Genesis, they sit down and treat it as a word-for-word reading. This is a literal interpretation of Genesis one and two. Many Christians believe that the Bible should be read this way, including Augustine and John Calvin. This view can change how one looks at Genesis, chapter one and two. Literalists take everything straightforwardly. In other words, the whole event happened in seven straight twenty-four hour literal days. ThisShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of The Law In The Court Of Law1438 Words   |  6 Pagestype of rule is the literal rule. This rule is when the judge gives a sentence based on the law is it referring to word for word. For example in the vase of R VS Bentham, a person gave the impression that he was carrying a gun in his pocket by using his fingers. Bentham entered the victim’s home where Bentham demanded that the victim give s him money and jewellery. In the court it was questioned if the Firearms Act 1968 would have been applicable for this case. So if the literal rule was used in thisRead MoreRavi Kamal Bali Vs Kala Tech And Ors1247 Words   |  5 PagesRavi Kamal Bali vs. Kala Tech and Ors. Patent litigation is the product of constructing and interpreting claims which decide the boundaries of any invention. The construction of claims is the centre of infringement proceedings. For determining claims of infringement, the courts approach is of literal interpretation. This approach led to circumvention of the interpreters by making small and superficial changes in the inventions. The inclination to literalism has made the courts move towards moreRead MoreRelationship Between Control And Protection1282 Words   |  6 Pageswhich include the Literal Rule, Mischief Rule and the Golden Rule. The Literal rule dictates that statues are to be interpreted using the ordinary meaning of the language of the statue, the statues is to be read word for word and is to be interpreted according to the ordinary meaning of the language. (Inspector of Taxes vs Kiernan (1981) in which a pig farmer was assessed to tax under revenue legislation that applied to dealers in cattle. The Supreme court applied the literal rule and held thatRead Moremr dddsdddd1164 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿GS0155 Interpersonal Communication Summary of concepts from Lecture 1 to Lecture 10 Lecture 1: Universals of IPC What is interpersonal communication? Nature of IPC: dyadic approach a. Dyadic b. Dyadic primacy c. Dyads Two types of dyadic connection: a. Dyadic coalition b. Dyadic consciousness Elements of Interpersonal Communication: (the model of IPC) a. Source-Receiver (encode, decode) b. Messages (feedback message, feed forward message) c. Channel d. Noise (Physical, PhysiologicalRead MoreEssay on Daniel 9: 24-27 - The Prophecy Of The Seventy Weeks 2733 Words   |  11 Pagesfound in Luke 19:28-4 (March 30, A.D. 33). An alternative approach to the decree of Artaxerxes I is the edict of Cyrus in 538 B.C., which separates 532 years between the command to restore and rebuild the temple and the birth of the Messiah. However, this approach takes a conventional assignment (7 x 14 and 7 x 62) of the â€Å"sevens† and not a literal uniformed meaning thus running the risk of forcing prophecy. Nevertheless, each approach does accurately lineup with the virgin birth foretold andRead MoreTranslation Technique by Molina and Albir6820 Words   |  28 Pages498 Meta, XLVII, 4, 2002 Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach lucà ­a molina and amparo hurtado albir Universitat Autà ²noma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain RÉSUMÉ Cet article a pour objectif de cerner la notion de technique de traduction entendue comme un des instruments d’analyse textuelle qui permet d’à ©tudier le fonctionnement de l’à ©quivalence par rapport à   l’original. Nous rappelons tout d’abord les diffà ©rentes dà ©finitions et classifications qui ont à ©tà © proposà ©esRead MoreThe Reasoning Of Common Law2175 Words   |  9 Pagesagreed which approach to use,so for that reason there are three rules of interpretations which we must learn about: a.The Literal rule - which ties the court to the wording of the Parliament and does not give them very much leeway to escape from it even if it create an absurd situation,but as each rule developed, more and more discretion was given to the judges to be able to reach the decision that they felt Parliament intended or right for the case. For example in the case of Whiteley vs Chappell (1868)Read MoreLegal Methods4881 Words   |  20 Pagesthe expressions which may be found there and that not intended to be the expositions of the whole law but governed a qualified by the particular facts of the case in which such expressions are to be found; * An example of ratio in case of Donoghue vs. Stevenson (1932) is the principle of the duty of care to those a person can reasonably foresee will be affected by his/her action. * Identifying ratio in a case may be difficult; Judges are under no obligation to label the different part of theirRead MoreAnalysis Of Lorna Crozier s Poem The Eye Rhyme 1400 Words   |  6 Pagespararhyme which supports the theme of deception and dissent articulated by the words, â€Å"furtive†(11) and, â€Å"Not so!†(12). 3.What is the chief symbol in Lorna Crozier’s poem Forms of Innocence (Geddes, 751)? What does the symbol suggest beyond its literal meaning? The chief symbol in Lorna Crozier’s poem is the black swan. The swan evokes the dark passionate mysterious mystic of wild unpredictable dark feminine energy that holds the quiet potential power of creation. The swan is the companion of theRead MoreAn Analysis of English-Chinese Subtitle Translating Strategies: Taking Gossip Girl as an Example4351 Words   |  18 Pagesconflicting demands facing a translator in the process of translation: length vs. content, word order vs. picture order, naturalization vs. alienation and transliteration vs. semantic translation and suggested ways of resolving these conflicts. However, frankly speaking, all these articles on the research of audiovisual translation have not produced very satisfactory results due to the lack of any adequate approach in general or in particular. In recent years some scholars have begun to explore

Economic way of thinking Free Essays

In addition to their Immediate effects secondary effects are effects of a policy change that might not be noticeable when the policy change Is Implemented 7. The value of a good or service Is subjective what one good Is worth to person A, may have a completely different value by person B (l Like pizza with extra cheese, I value It highly. You are allergic to dairy products, so you place a low value on a pizza with extra cheese) 8. We will write a custom essay sample on Economic way of thinking or any similar topic only for you Order Now The test of a theory Is Its ability to predict Positive and normative economics Positive economics – the study of â€Å"what Is† among economic relationships For Instance, positive statements can be statistically evaluated. Normative economics – Judgments about â€Å"what ought to be† In economic matters Normative statements merely reflect people’s values – these statements cannot be proven true or false by economic thinking (think of It as a policeman’s views on any matter – abortion, capital punishment, etc. Those pollens cannot be proven right or wrong – they can merely be Judged) Economic way of thinking By gangplank 5. The acquisition of information is costly information can help people make better decisions, but information is a scarce good – the time it takes to search for the 6. Economic actions often generate secondary effects in addition to their immediate when the policy change is implemented 7. The value of a good or service is subjective what one good is worth to person A, may have a completely different value by person B (l like pizza with extra cheese, I alee it highly. You are allergic to dairy products, so you place a low value on a pizza with extra cheese) 8. The test of a theory is its ability to predict Positive economics – the study of â€Å"what is† among economic relationships For instance, positive statements can be statistically evaluated. Normative economics – judgments about â€Å"what ought to be† in economic matters proven true or false by economic thinking (think of it as a politician’s views on any matter – abortion, capital punishment, etc. Those opinions cannot be proven right or How to cite Economic way of thinking, Papers

Species Distribution of Liverworts in Mt. Kalatungan, Pangantucan, Bukidnon free essay sample

These plants are easily overlooked because of their small sizes, yet play a very important role in the ecosystem. It is widely distributed, occurring from the arctic to the tropics. Some grow in relatively dry places and most occur where moisture is generally available, such as on damp soil or moist rotting logs, along shaded   stream banks, on rocks in streams, or on wet rock outcroppings; a few even grow under saline conditions. The leafy and thalloid liverworts are the two groups of taxonomic characters. Furthermore, liverworts generally grow in consistently moist habitats, occupying niches where competition with vascular plants is minimal. Spray zones of waterfalls or wetlands such as bogs, fens, and streams seeps, are often rich in hepatics. Shaded old-growth forests also support liverwort growth, particularly in mesic or even hydric habitats. Thalloid liverworts grow on consistently damp rock faces or in wetlands. Other species may grow in shaded crevices and among mosses in more xeric conditions. Liverworts also may colonize moist or submerged rocks (Scapania nemorosa, Porella pinnata), grow under water (Ricciocarpus fluitans), found on logs and humic soil in mesic forests (Nowellia curvifloria, Bazzania trilobata) and grows on tree bark (Frullania eboracensis). Different forest associations favor a variety of liverwort assemblages (Schuster, 2000)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Several liverworts species reported in traditional Chinese medicine such as Marchantia, Pallavicinia, Plagiochila and Lepidozia (Saxena and Harinder, 2004). Furthermore, liverworts   also been considered to play a significant role in the global carbon budget (O’Neill, 2000) and CO2 exchange and have been used as indicator of past climate change, and as potential indicators of global warming (Gignac, 2001; De Lucia et al,2003). In the present study, the researchers attempted to assessed the number of liverworts   that are distributed in the mossy forest of Mt. Kalatungan and possibly   identify new possible species in the sites selected wherein the said mountain showed a very cold environment and are required as favorable condition to different bryophytes growing on tree trunks, soils and on rock moist surfaces within the study site. So far, very few studies have examined the liverworts community structure and its relationships to substrates and vegetation type, likewise, no central source towards synthesis of nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution patterns and conservation at   a regional level, thus this present study is conceived. Statement of the Problem The study attempted to assess the distribution of liverworts   in the mossy forest of Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon. Specifically it sought to answer the following questions: 1. How are the species be classified, identified and described? .. How are the liverworts ecologically distributed in the mossy forest? 3. What are the species of liverworts identified with medicinal value? Objectives of the Study The study attempted to assess the liverworts   in the mossy forest of Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon. Specifically, it aimed to: 1. Collect, identify and classify the liverworts at the study sites. 2. Determine how the liverworts ecologically distributed in the mossy forest. 3. Determine the species of liverworts identified with medicinal value. Significance of the Study This study will provide additional baseline information regarding the taxonomic structure, habitat and the distribution of the species of liverworts. Results will benefit the students, teachers, scientists, biologists and the people in the community about the existence of liverworts. It will also give additional information regarding the role of liverworts in ecology and medicine. More importantly, this will guide scientists on what global actions are needed to conserve the earth’s forest ecosystem. Scope and Limitations of the Study The study is only limited on the distribution and ecology of liverworts in the mossy forest of Mt. Kalatungan in Bukidnon. The species were collected within the specified quadrat. It was conducted last December 27-29, 2012. Theoretical Framework Review of Related Literature The Liverworts: Classification, Habitat, Life   Cycle and Ecology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Bryophytes are non-vascular plants. They are simple, green, and undergoing photosynthetic activity in the forest ecosystem. There are three distinct lineages namely; mosses (Bryopsida or Musci), liverworts (Hepaticopsida or Hepaticae), and Hornworts (Anthocerotopsida or Anthocerotae). There are 24,000 species of bryophytes worldwide. It is estimated that about 6,000 to 8,000 species for liverworts, though, when Neotropical regions are studied this population may approach 10,000 species. Some of the more familiar species grow as a flattened leafless thallus, but most are leafy with a form very much like a flattened moss. Other species of liverworts have leafy appearance of mosses but they lack midribs or costa. Liverworts are typically small, usually from 2-20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long, and are therefore often overlooked. However, certain species may cover large patches of ground, Rocks, trees, or any other reasonably firm substrate on which they occur. They are distributed globally in almost every available habitat, most often in humid locations although there are desert and arctic species as well. Some species can be nuisance in shady green houses or a weed in gardens. Leafy Liverworts ( Jungermaniidae) A leafy liverwort typically has leaves of two sizes, arranged in three rows along the stem. The larger leaves (called lateral leaves) grow in two rows, along opposite sides of the stem. The great majority of leafy liverworts is prostrate plants and grows along some substrate (e. g. soil, bark, leaves, and rock). In such a growth form the lateral leaves are parallel to the substrate and the third row of leaves is on the underside of the stem which explains why they are often called under leaves. The coplanar arrangement of the lateral leaves gives leafy liverworts a flat look that is rare in mosses. The leaves themselves vary greatly in shape, depending on species. The leaves range from fairly simple, rounded shapes to heavily divide. The margins may be smooth to toothed to hairy (http://www. anbg. gov. au/bryophyte/liverwort-leafy. html). Thallose Liverworts (Marchantiidae) Liverworts of this type have a plant body with no stem-leaf structure, but consist instead of a thallus a large flat plate, one to several cells thick. The thallus maybe subdivided into lobes, and these may vary in width from 2-3 millimeters or more according to the species. In some species there is a thickened midrib, and some may have pores (small holes) dotted about their surface(http://www. hiddenforest. co. nz/bryophytes/liverworts/intro. tm). Habitat of Liverworts Liverworts are literally found everywhere. They flourish on every continent and landmass, and exploit a remarkably diverse array of microhabitats. In addition to growing in persistently moist environments, such as in fresh water, on forest floors, waterfall splash zones, and stream banks, some are well adapted to microhabitats where water is limited. These include on bark and t wigs (epiphytes), on the surface of leaves (epiphylls), and on the rock surface. Some liverworts are even able to persist in truly desert environments. The ocean and other salty aquatic habitats are the only environments where liverworts are absent. (http://www. biology. duke. edu/bryology/liTol/ecoConsRefs. html). Life Cycle of Liverworts The unique life cycle of liverworts and hornworts consists of a spore producing body called a sporophyte that is attach to and dependent on the gamete producing body called gametophyte for its nutrient supply. The taxonomy and proper identification of these two groups of bryophytes depend on characters observed from both the gametophyte and sporophyte bodies. The gametophyte body is haploid (one set of chromosomes) and produces the sex organ, either the archegonia (female) or the antheridia (male). The sex organs of liverworts are surrounded and protected by specialize leafy appendages or the other types of protected structures, while that of hornworts are sunken into the gametophyte for protection. The female archegonium is flask-shaped structure consisting of a long neck and an enlarged basal portion (venter) where the egg cell is born. Contrasting the male antheridium is the elongated or oblong structure with a basal stalk (Piippo et al, 2002). Economic Importance of Liverworts Liverworts have little direct economic importance today. Their greatest impact is indirect, through the reduction of erosion along stream banks, their collection and retention of water in tropical forests, and the formation of soil crusts in deserts and Polar Regions. However, a few species are used by humans directly. A few species, such as Riccia fluitans, are aquatic thallose liverworts sold for use in aquariums. Their thin, slender branches float on the waters surface and provide habitat for both small invertebrates and the fish that feed on them (Raven, P. H. , R. F. Evert, amp; S. E. Eichhorn. 2005). In United States Geological Survey of Forest and Rangeland and Ecosystem Science in July 21, 2003, liverworts also have great potential as indicator for long-term ecological monitoring because they are obviously an important aesthetic and functional part of park ecosystems; they are susceptible to changes in air quality, precipitation chemistry and climate. The liverworts, together with mosses and hornworts, play a vital role in, and constitute a major part of, the biodiversity in moist forest, wetland, mountain and tundra ecosystems. They frequently dominate (co-dominate with lichens) severely stressed environments, such as exposed mountain summits, upland stream communities, and toxic environments (e. g. , soil rich in heavy metals), where most vascular plants are unable to compete successfully (Hallingback, N 2000). Medicinal uses of Liverworts Bryophytes are good sources of medicine such as the liverworts which contain biologically active substances and recent study in the United States on the anti-cancer properties of bryophytes has been rewarding. Some of the result of this research can be found in Spjut et. al. (2007). In ancient times, it was believed that liverworts cured diseases of the liver, hence the name. In Old English, the word liverwort literally means liver plant (Raven, P. H. , R. F. Evert, amp; S. E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th ed. , page 351. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). This probably stemmed from the superficial appearance of some thalloid liverworts (which resemble a liver in outline), and led to the common name of the group as hepatics, from the Latin word hepaticus for â€Å"belonging to the liver†. An unrelated flowering plant, Hepatica, is sometimes also referred to as liverwort because it was once also used in treating diseases of the liver. This archaic relationship of plant form to function was based in the â€Å"Doctrine of Signatures† (Sadava, David; David M. Hillis, H. Craig Heller, May Berenbaum, 2009) Several Researches Conducted Related to Liverworts The liverwort flora is still largely unknown in as much as reports of collection are scanty, widely scattered and cannot easily be assembled. The following list of known records has been exhausted by the researchers. Azuelo (2005) in her report of Bryophytes Flora in Mt. Malindang, Misamis Oriental that there are 11 families, 13 Genera and 18 species of liverworts. Liverworts have 3 families, genera and species as cited by (Neri et. al 2007) In the study conducted by (Repolidon and Colinares, 2012) they reported 23 species with 5 families and 11 genera of liverworts along the mountain streams in Bacusanon, Pangantucan, Bukidnon. Lastly, (Azuelo, et. al 2012) in their study on Species Richness of Bryophytes and Lichens in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon reported that there are twelve (12) families, twenty (20) genera and sixty-two (62) species of liverworts found in the said study site. METHODOLOGY A. Prior Informed Consent (PIC) with the Locale People A letter was personally given to the office of the Punong   Barangay of Bacusanon, Pangantucan, Bukidnon before the conduct of the study. B. Establishment of the Study Area and Sampling Design The conduct of inventory of liverworts was done by quadrat sampling within 20 x 20 meters inside the quadrat. All the liverworts were collected along the study site were listed, and their associated habitats were noted. C. Location of the Study site The research sites were located in Mt. Kalatungan Range National Park situated in san Guinto, Bacusanon, Pangantucan, Bukidnon. The site was located in the mossy forest of Mt. Kalatungan Range. The said site has approximately 2,008 meters above sea level and the relative humidity is 14? C. D. Research Design The study utilized the descriptive and research survey. E. Preparation of Herbarium Specimen The collected specimens of liverworts was placed in a plastic bag with a field label data such as: collection number, data of collection, associated habitats and the presence of the sporophyte. This was then air dried and place in packet envelope and will properly label for herbarium vouchers. F. Identification, Classification and Description of Liverworts Species The specimens was identified and classified based on their gametophyte differentiation: leafy and thalloid. Leafy liverworts are described morphologically by their diagnostic characters such as color, size, leaf insertion, and leaf apex and leaf margins. Thalloid liverworts are described morphologically based on plant habit: prostrate, ascending, erect or hanging; whether the body is dichotomous or irregular; presence of midrib; presence of involucres on the reproductive organ. Identification was made using the existing herbaria and keys from books, scientific articles and journals. Further examinations were done through field lens. The specimen was initially identified by the researchers and confirmed by Dr. Andrea G. Azuelo, a bryologist based in Central Mindanao University, Musuan Bukidnon. G. Species Distribution in the Site The number of families, genera, and species of the collected specimens in the site was determined and compared. H. Photo Documentation A digital camera was used for the documentation for the study site and the specimen was taken from their natural habitats. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION _______________________________________ The results shows a total of twenty one (21) species with eight (8) genera and eight (8) families found in the study site. Based on their gametophyte differentiation, leafy and thalloid liverworts were observed. There are three (3) thalloids liverworts species and eighteen (18) leafy liverworts species. Most of the species collected were confined on decayed logs because most likely the decayed logs were more preferable habitat of liverworts. Given are the species of Liverworts and their description collected on the mossy forest on December 27-29, 2012. Family : Metzgeriaceae Collection Number: 1 Scientific Name: Metzgeria sp. Description:Leafy liverworts, Dark green when fresh and greenish brown when dry. Lack air chambers, air pores, ventral scales and pegged rhizoids. Marginal hairs, single pairs, curved and hooked. Collection Number: 2 Scientific Name: Metzgeria consanguine Description:  Ã‚   Leafy liverworts. Yellow green when fresh and dark green when dry. Family: Lepidoziaceae Collection Number: 3 Scientific Name: Lepidozia sp. Description:Leafy liverworts. Green when fresh and greenish brown when dry. Lateral leaves elliptical to ovate, alternate distantly arranged, leaf base plains, leaf margin entire, leaf apex toothed (Azuelo, 2005) Collection number: 4 Scientific name: Lepidozia sp. 1 Description: Leafy liverworts. Pale green when fresh and yellow green when dry. Lateral leaves elliptical; leaf base plain; leaf margin entire; leaf apex toothed(Azuelo 2006). Collection Number: 5 Scientific name: Bazzania sp. Description: Leafy liverworts. Green to dark green when dry and green to yellow green in tip when dry. Lateral leaves lingulate-cutriform; Leaf base plain; leaf margin entire; Leaf apex toothed (Azuelo,2005). Collection Number: 6 Scientific name: Bazzania sp. 2 Description: Leafy liverworts. Green to dark glossy green when fresh and greenish brown when dry. Lateral leaf irregular lingulate; leaf base plain,leaf margin entire, leaf apex toothed (Azuelo 2005). Collection Number: 7 Scientific name: Bazzania tridens Description: Leafy liverworts. Dark glossy green when fresh greenish brown when dry. Leaf spreading/parent. Lateral leaf irregular lingulate; leaf base plain, leaf margin entire, leaf apex toothed (Azuelo, 2005) Family: Pallaviciniaceae Collection Number: 8 Scientific name: Pallvicinia llyellii Description: Thalloid liverworts. Green when fresh and greenish brown when dry,  branched. Leaves in many lobes,leaf base plain; leaf margin entire;leaf apex round; presence of â€Å"vita† (Azuelo et. al. 2011). Family: Marchantiaceae Collection Number: 9 Scientific name: Marchantia polymorpha Description: Thalloid   liverwort. Green when fresh and brownish green when dry. Leaves in many lobe;leaf base plain; leaf margin entire; leaf apex round; presence of costa(Azuelo et. al. 2011). Collection Number: 10 Scientific name: Dumortiera hirsuta Description: Thalloid liverwort. Green when fresh and dry. Leaves in many lobes,leaf base plain, leaf margin entire; leaf apex round. Presence of â€Å"vitta†. (Azuelo et. al. 2011). Family: Schistochilaceae Collection Number: 11 Scientific name: Schistochila sp. Description: Leafy liverworts. Green when fresh and yellowish green when dry. Lateral leaves elliptical; Leaf base plain; leaf margin entire; leaf apex obtuse (Azuelo 2005). Collection Number: 12 Scientific name: Schistochila sp. 2 Description: Leafy liverworts. Pale green when fresh and yellow green when dry. Collection Number:13 Scientific name: Schistochila aligera Description: Leafy liverworts. Yellow when fresh and greenish brown when dry. Collection Number: 14 Scientific name: Schistochila macrodonta Description: Leafy liverworts. Yellow green when fresh and dark green when dry. Lateral leaves oblong; leaf base cordate; leaf margin serrulate, leaf apex entire. Family: Plagiochilaceae Collection Number: 15 Scientific name: Plagiochila sp. Description:Leafy liverworts. Green when fresh and brown when dry; lateral leaves cultriform-lingulate, leaf base plain; leaf margin entire; leaf apex toothed in one side, entire in other side. Absence of ventral/under leaves. Collection Number: 16 Scientific name: Plagiochila sp. 1 Description: Leafy liverworts. Light green when fresh and greenish brown when dry. Lateral leaves cultriform,leaf margin dentate,leaf apex obtuse (Azuelo 2005). Collection Number:17 Scientific name: Plagiochila sp. Description: Leafy liverworts. Pale green when fresh and yellow green when dry. lateral   leaves ovate, leaf margin dentate,leaf apex very obtuse (Azuelo 2005). Collection Number: 18 Scientific name: Plagiochila bantamensis Description : Leafy liverworts. Dark green when fresh and pale green when dry. Leaves long, narrowly inserted to the stem, unlobed, toothed. Ventral leaf base forms a sac with ciliate margins; underleaves ciliate-dentate margins. Collection Number:19 Scientific name: Plagiochila javanica Description:Leafy liverworts. Dark green when fresh and yellow green when dry. Leaf base plain; leaf margin entire, leaf apex acute. Family: Geocalycaceae Collection Number: 20 Scientific name: Heteroscyphus sp. Description :Leafy liverworts. Dark green when fresh and greenish brown when dry. With 2-3 asymetrical teeth at leaf apices. Family: Lejeuneaceae Collection Number:21 Scientific name: Lejeunia sp. Description: Leafy liverwort. Green when fresh and dry,leaf margin entire and apex  Ã‚  Ã‚  blunty pointed. The table 1 (Appendix A) shows that families Lepidoziaceae , Plagiochilaceae and Schistochilaceae had abundance species found in the study site namely: Lepidozia sp, Lepidozia sp. 1, Bazzania tridens, Bazzania sp. and Bazzania sp. 2 for the family Lepidoziaceae. For the family Plagiochilaceae the following species were identified: Plagiochila sp. Plagiochila sp. 1 Plagiochila sp. 2, Plagiochila javanica and Plagiochila bantamensis . Schistochila macrodonta Schistochila sp, Schistochila sp. 2 and Schistochila aligera are the species collected for family Schistochilaceae. While families Metzgeriaceae, Geocalecaceae and Lejeuneaceae had less abundance species. Namely: Metzgeria sp. and Metzgeria consanguine for family Metzgeriaceae; Heteroscyphus sp. (family Geocalecaceae ) and Lejeunea sp. (family Lejeuneaceae). Among the identified species of liverworts there are three (3) thalloids liverworts species namely: Pallavicinia llyeii , Dumortiera hirsuta and Marchantia polymorpha sp. and eighteen (18) leafy liverworts species: Metzgeria sp. , Metzgeria consanguine, Lepidozia sp, Lepidozia sp. 1, Bazzania tridens, Bazzania sp. Bazzania sp. 2, Schistochila macrodonta, Schistochila sp. , Schistochila sp. 2, Schistochila aligera, Plagiochila sp. , Plagiochila sp. 1, Plagiochila sp. 2, Plagiochila javanica, Plagiochila bantamensis, Heteroscyphus sp. and Lejeunea sp. Most of the species collected were confined on decayed logs because most likely the decayed logs were more preferable habitat of liverworts Table 2 (Appendix B). The results shows a total of eight (8) families namely: Family Metzgeriaceae, Lepidoziaceae, Pallaviciniaceae, Marchantiaceae, Schistochilaceae, Plagiochilaceae, Geocalecaceae, and Lejeuneceae. This also includes eight (8) genera namely: Metzgeria, Lepidozia, Pallavicinia, Marchantia, Schistochila, Plagiochila, Heteroscyphus and Lejeunea. The findings of the study shows that there are twenty one (21) species of liverworts collected namely: Metzgeria sp, Metzgeria consanguine, Lepidozia sp. , Lepidozia sp. 1, Bazzania tridens,   Bazzania sp. Bazzania sp. 2,Pallavicinia llyeii, Dumortiera hirsuta, Marchantia polymorpha sp. , Schistochila macrodonta, Schistochila sp. , Schistochila sp. 2,Schistochila aligera, Plagiochila sp. , Plagiochila sp. 1,   Plagiochila sp. 2, Plagiochila javanica, Plagiochila bantamensis, Heteroscyphus sp. and Lejeunea sp. Table 3 (Appendix C)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The table 4 (Appendix D) shows that some species of liverworts collected has a medicinal importance. This includes the species of   Dumortiera sp. s source for antibiotics: Marchantia polymorpha as diuretics for liver ailments, insect bites, boils and abscesses, treat pulmonary tuberculosis, with growth inhibiting substances; used to cure cuts, fractures, poisonous bites, burns, scalds, and open wounds, for cardiovascular disease; Pallavicinia sp. as extracts for antimicrobial activity; Plagiochila sp. exhibits anti-leukemic activity/anti-microbial activity; Bazzania sp. exhibits anti-fungal activity; and Leujenia sp. can cure chest pain. SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Summary and Conclusion This research is conducted to be able to inventory the distribution of liverworts in the mossy forest in Mt. Kalatungan, Pangantucan, Bukidnon. Specifically this study aimed to: 1) collect, classify and identify the liverworts in the study sites. 2) determine how the liverworts ecologically distributed in the mossy forest and 3) determine the species of liverworts with medicinal value. Based on the findings of the study, twenty one (21) species of liverworts were collected with eight families namely: Family Metzgeriaceae, Lepidoziaceae, Pallaviciniaceae, Marchantiaceae, Schistochilaceae, Plagiochilaceae, Geocalecaceae, and Lejeuneceae. This also includes eight (8) genera namely: Metzgeria, Lepidozia, Pallavicinia, Marchantia, Schistochila, Plagiochila, Heteroscyphus and Lejeunea. The findings of the study shows that there are twenty one (21) species of liverworts collected namely: Metzgeria sp, Metzgeria consanguine, Lepidozia sp. , Lepidozia sp. 1, Bazzania tridens,   Bazzania sp. , Bazzania sp. 2,Pallavicinia llyeii, Dumortiera hirsuta, Marchantia polymorpha sp. , Schistochila macrodonta, Schistochila sp. , Schistochila sp. 2,Schistochila aligera, Plagiochila sp. , Plagiochila sp. 1,   Plagiochila sp. ,Plagiochila javanica, Plagiochila bantamensis, Heteroscyphus sp. and Lejeunea sp. The identified species were identified according to gametophyte differentiation: leafy and thalloid. There are a total of eighteen (18) leafy liverworts species and three (3)   thalloids liverworts species. The collected species were also classified based on their taxonomic characters such as color, classification, shape, apex a nd margin. Findings also shows that there are six (6) of liverworts had potential value in medicine. This includes: Durmotiera hirsuta, Marchantia polymorpha, Pallavicinia sp. Plagiochila sp. , Bazzania sp. ,and Leujenia sp. Most of the species are recorded to possess antimicrobial activity, anti-leukemic and anti-fungal property. Recommendation The researchers recommends that further study on the morphological  diversity of liverworts requires an in-depth study to carefully explore and describe their morphology  character. It is also recommended to conduct study on the other parts of the mossy forest with establishments of more sampling plots in the study sites and the factors   that affect the species distribution has to be considered. Further scientific research on the study sites should be conducted to find out more medicinal species of liverworts for the benefits of everyone. LITERATURE CITED Azuelo,A. ,Sariana,L. ,Magday,E. ,and Montecillo,R. 2012. Species Richness and Biodiversity of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bryophytes and Lichens in Mt. Kalatungan, Bukidnon. Azuelo,A. ,Sariana,L. and Pabualan,M. 2011. Some Medicinal Bryophytes: Their Ethnobotanical Uses and   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Morphology. Asian Journal of Biodiversity. Bongay,K. , Lofranco,M. , and Maribao,H. 2012. Distribution of Liverworts along Maradugao   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   River, Malinao, Kalilangan, Bukidnon. Manville,G. ,Webster,H. , and Stabley,J. Bryophytes and Lichens: Review of Status in Pennsylvania. Raven, P. H. , R. F. Evert, and S. E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th ed. , page 351. (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. Sadava, David; David M. Hillis, H. Craig Heller, May Berenbaum (2009). Life: The Science of Biology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (9th ed. ). New York: W. H. Freeman. p. 599. ISBN  1429246448. WEBLIOGRAPHY http://www. anbg. gov. au/bryophyte/liverwort-leafy. html Appendix A TABLE 1:   Family, genera and species of liverworts found in the study sites. FAMILY| GENERA| SPECIES| Metzgeriaceae| Metzgeria| Metzgeria sp. Metzgeria consanguine| Lepidoziaceae| Lepidozia| Lepidozia spLepidozia sp. 1Bazzania tridensBazzania sp. Bazzania sp. 2| Pallaviciniaceae| Pallavicinia| Pallavicinia llyeii| Marchantiaeceae| Marchantia| Dumortiera hirsutaMarchantia polymorpha sp. | Schistochilaceae| Schistochila| Schistochila macrodontaSchistochila sp. Schistochila sp. 2Schistochila aligera| Plagiochilaceaea| Plagiochila| Plagiochila sp. Plagiochila sp. 1Plagiochila sp. 2Plagiochila javanicaPlagiochila bantamensis| Geocalecaceae| Heteroscyphus| Heteroscyphus sp. | Lejeuneaceae| Lejeuneae| Lejeunea sp. Appendix B Table 2: Types of liverworts based on their classification and their habitats Family| Species| Types| Habitat| Metzgeriaceae| Metzgeria sp. Metzgeria consaguine| LeafyLeafy| Tree rootsTwigs| Lepidoziaceae| Lepidozia spLepidozia sp. 1Bazzania tridensBazzania sp. Bazzania sp. 2| LeafyLeafyLeafyLeafyLeafy| Decayed logsDecayed logsDecayed logsDecayed logsDecayed logs| Palla viciniaceae| Pallavicinia llyeii| Thalloids| Decayed roots| Marchantiaeceae| Dumortiera hirsutaMarchantia polymorpha sp. | ThalloidsThalloids| Decayed branchDecayed logs| Schistochilaceae| Schistochila macrodontaSchistochila sp. Schistochila sp. 2Schistochila aligera| LeafyLeafyLeafyLeafy| Decayed logsDecayed logsDecayed logsDecayed logs| Plagiochilaceaea| Plagiochila sp. Plagiochila sp. 1Plagiochila sp. 2Plagiochila javanicaPlagiochila bantamensis| LeafyLeafyLeafyLeafyLeafy| Tree trunkTree trunkDecayed branchDecayed branchSoil/Decayed logs| Geocalecaceae| Heteroscyphus sp. | Leafy| Fallen branch| Lejeuneaceae| Lejeunea sp. | Leafy| Decayed logs| Appendix C TABLE 3: Summary of Liverworts collected in Mt. kalatungan, Pangantucan,   Bukidnon. FAMILIES| GENERA| SPECIES| Metzgeriaceae| 1| 2| Lepidoziaceae| 1| 5| Pallaviciniaceae| 1| 1| Marchantiaceae| 1| 2| Schistochilaceae| 1| 4| Plagiochilaceae| 1| 5| Geocalycacea| 1| 1| Lejeuneaceae| 1| 1| TOTAL 8| 8| 21| Appendix D TABLE 4: Species of liverworts and their medicinal uses or properties found in the study sites SPECIES OF LIVERWORTS| MEDICINAL USES| 1. Durmotiera hirsuta| As source for antibiotics *| 2. Marchantia polymorpha  | As diuretics for liver ailments, insect bites, boils and abscesses, treat pulmonary tuberculosis, with growth inhibitingsubstances; used to cure cuts, fractures, poisonous bites, burns, scalds, and open wounds, for cardiovascular disease *| 3. Pallavicinia sp. | Extracts for antimicrobial activity *| 4. Plagiochila sp. | Exhibits anti-leukemic activity/anti-microbial activity*| 5. Bazzania sp. | Exhibits anti-fungal activity***| 6. Leujenia sp| Can cure chest pain**| References:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   * Azuelo, et. al. 2011. Asian Journal of Biodiversity. Volume 2 ** Boom,1996:67 *** http://. arkat-usa. org/get-file/18667/